Nowadays, LLSs are mainly divided into three major categories on the basis of level or type of processing involved: cognitive, metacognitive, and social/affective strategies (Brown & Palinscar, 1982; Chamot & O’Malley, 1990; O’Malley et al., 1985; Rubin, 1981).
(1) Cognitive Learning Strategies認(rèn)知學(xué)習(xí)策略
Early focus of language learning strategies was mostly placed on cognitive skills. Cognitive learning strategies refer to the learning strategies that directly affect the learner’s language learning. They “operate directly on incoming information, manipulating it in ways that enhance learning” (Chamot & O’Malley, 1990, p. 44). Oxford (1990) used the term “direct strategies” and Dansereau (1985) used “primary strategies” to refer to the cognitive strategies. Rubin (1981) also made a distinction between “direct processes” and “indirect process,” similar to the divisions made by Oxford (1990). The direct processes referred to the cognitive strategies, and the indirect processes indicated the other two strategies, metacognitive and affective/social strategies.
Cognitive strategies are also more directly related to a specific task or a learning objective and may not be applicable to different types of tasks. The focus of cognitive strategies is on determining the effect of different cognitive strategy training on different kinds of tasks and learners.
Classfication of cognitive strategies認(rèn)知學(xué)習(xí)策略的分類:
Different experts have classified cognitive strategies differently.
a. Mayer and Weinstein (1986) proposed that cognitive strategies could be summed into three categories: rehearsal, organization, and elaboration process.
b. Chamot and O’Malley suggested that typical cognitive strategies included rehearsal, organization, inference, summarizing, deduction, imagery, transfer, and elaboration.(?:排練, 組織, 推理?, 概況, 演繹推理?, 意象, 遷移, 加工)
c. In Oxford’s view (1990), the direct strategies comprised memory, cognitive, and compensation strategies, each of which was further subcategorized in Oxford's work.
(2) Metacognitive Learning Strategies 元認(rèn)知學(xué)習(xí)策略
Metacognitive strategies refer to the “overall control over the learning process through reasoning, planning, monitoring, and self-evaluation”. They are knowledge and regulation about cognitive phenomena; the knowledge enables individuals to “plan, sequence, and monitor their learning in a way that directly improves performance” .
Metacognitive strategies, unlike the confinement 限制of cognitive strategies, are more universal among various tasks. The strategies are deemed as the highest superiority.
Classfication of Metacognitive Learning Strategies元認(rèn)知學(xué)習(xí)策略的分類:
a. Oxford (1990) pointed out three sub-strategies for metacognitive strategies: centering your learning, arranging and planning your learning, and evaluating your learning.
b. Anderson (1991) subsumed歸類 these strategies into five steps: preparing and planning for effective learning, selecting and using particular strategies, knowing how to monitor strategy use, learning how to orchestrate 使協(xié)調(diào)地結(jié)合在一起various strategies, and evaluating strategy use and learning.
c. According to Brown and Palincsar (1982), these strategies involved reflecting, planning, and monitoring in the process of learning as well as self-evaluation after the learning activities.
(3) Social/affective strategies社會/情感策略
Social/affective strategies refer to strategies involving the interaction with other people or the management of affection. Like metacognitive strategies, they are thought to be more applicable to various tasks (Chamot & O’Malley, 1990).
Social strategies are those activities affording learners “opportunities to be exposed to and practice their knowledge” (Rubin, 1987, p. 27).
Affective strategies are “the ways in which learners deal with their affective and emotional states” (Liu, 1996, p. 21).
To sum up, social strategies promote the practice opportunities and affective strategies help learners take care of the emotions; both of the strategies affect the learning effect.
subcategories for affective/social strategies: 社會情感策略的分類
a. Chamot and O’Malley (1990) recognized three affective/social strategies: cooperation, questions for clarification, and self-talks.
b. Oxford (1990), otherwise, gave some more detailed items: lowering your anxiety, encouraging yourself, and taking your emotional temperature for affective strategies; and asking question, cooperating with others, and empathizing 有同感?with others for social strategies.
From http://blog.hjenglish.com/sharonflower/articles/1033568.html
